Who first comes to mind when you think of American civil rights activist? Most likely, it is Martin Luther King, Jr. Many of you remember the speech he delivered at the Lincoln Memorial before the March on Washington on August 28, 1963: “I have a dream.”
“I have a dream that one day on the red hills of Georgia the sons of former slaves and the sons of former slave owners will be able to sit down together at the table of brotherhood … I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character.”
This speech made him the most influential civil rights activist of all time. King committed his life to eliminating racial inequality that had lasted for over 200 years. At age 35, he received the Nobel Peace Prize for his leadership in the civil rights movement.
Have you also heard about Rosa Parks? Here is a story about Rosa Parks. It is a real story that happened in Montgomery, Alabama. Around 6 p.m., on December 1, 1955, a middle-aged black woman got on a bus. She paid her fare and sat in an empty seat. Because it was during rush hour, all the seats were soon taken. Then, several white passengers boarded the bus. The bus driver, who was also white, asked her to give up her seat.
The driver demanded that she give her seat to a white passenger: “Are you going to stand up?”
She refused: “No, I am not.”
The driver called the police. The police arrested her. She was fined $10, plus $4 in court costs, for violating the segregation laws. The segregation law of the Montgomery City Code stated that the sections of seating for whites and blacks shall be separate and bus drivers have “the powers of a police officer” in assigning seats to passengers. In Montgomery, segregation on public transportation had been legally allowed since 1900. Black people had long resented the unfairness of the law and were upset by the arrest of Rosa Parks. However, no one knew how to help her because it was the law.
Then, a 26-year-old black pastor came forward. He wasn’t a rich businessman, an influential civil servant, or a powerful congressman. He was Martin Luther King, Jr. He suggested a boycott as a form of resistance: “Don’t ride the buses!” The black community responded. Black residents walked or carpooled to work, instead of riding buses. Black taxi drivers provided rides for black riders at the same fare as buses. The boycott lasted for 381 days.
Some lost jobs, some threatened with death, and some even killed. However, the black community didn’t stop their resistance against racial discrimination. Finally, on November 13, 1956, the Supreme Court ruled that the segregation laws were unconstitutional. Racial segregation was abolished not just on buses, but also at restaurants, restrooms, and other public places. Today, all races have the right to be treated equally. We should never forget the contribution of Martin Luther King, Jr. to leading to this change. There is no question that he is one of the greatest civil rights activists in U.S. history. However, we should also remember this great change started with a brave woman, Rosa Parks.
Who first comes to mind when you think of movable metal type?
In 1997, Life Magazine published a list of the 100 most important events of the past 1000 years in its Millennium Special Issue. Here are the top five.
- Galileo Galilei’s Telescope: After telescopic observations, Galileo suggested heliocentrism that contradicted the long-believed geocentricism.
- The Industrial Revolution: James Watt’s invention of the steam engine and its commercialization revolutionized our mode of life.
- The Protestant Reformation: Martin Luther translated the Bible written in Latin to the German vernacular and made it accessible to the public.
- The Discovery of America by Columbus: Christopher Columbus discovered the New World or the Americas during his voyages under the sponsorship of Queen Isabella of Spain.
- The Invention of the Printing Press: Johannes Gutenberg printed the 42-line Bible using movable metal type.
Renowned international media, such as the Times, the BBC, the Wall Street Journal, and the Washington Post, recognized movable metal type as the greatest invention in history. The significance of movable metal type lies in its contribution to the spread of knowledge and information that used to be limited to the privileged. This change led to revolutions, including the Renaissance, the Reformation, the Civil Revolution, and the Industrial Revolution.
There was another book printed with movable metal type, 78 earlier than the Gutenberg Bible. That book is Jikji printed in 1377 during the Goryeo Dynasty. Recognized for its value as the oldest existing book made through movable metal print, Jikji was inscribed on the Memory of the World Register in 2001. Korea’s movable type technology was transferred to other Asian countries. Japanese documents from the 16th century, such as the TokiyoshiKyoki, noted that Japan learned movable copper- and wooden-type printing from Joseon (Korea).
Some western scholars argue that Korea may have invented the first movable metal type but it did not have the amount of impact as Gutenberg’s printing technology had on the world. This perspective assumes that popularity and global impact determine value. However, we need to consider why UNESCO added Jikji to the Memory of the World Register. UNESCO established the Memory of the World program in 1992 in order to preserve documentary heritage that is of world significance – whether it is evocative of an important time, place, or people in world history. Jikji is not as widely known as the Gutenberg Bible, but UNESCO still recognized its world significance.
Korea’s long tradition of printing technology is less known to the world. Mugujeonggwang Daedaranigyeong (Pure Light Dharani Sutra), printed in 704, is the world’s oldest surviving book printed with woodblocks. About 670 years later, Jikji was printed with movable metal type. Jikji was the result of accumulated knowledge of printing technology over the years. Korean metal type experts suspect that Korea’s movable metal type printing technology may have been transferred to Europe through the Silk Road. Gutenberg couldn’t have invented the technology without prior knowledge. There was a Canadian producer who shared the same suspicion and began a journey to find an answer: David Redman.
Redman produced a documentary “Dancing with Jikji” that explores a link between Jikji and Gutenberg. Before the start of his journey, he thought of a possibility that Goryeo’s printing technology was transferred to western Europe through the Vatican, which was in active communication with the Yuan Dynasty. Goryeo had the most advanced printing technology and it had a strong tie with Yuan through royal marriages. The producer hypothesized that Gutenberg’s invention might have been influenced by Goryeo’s technology. Then, he began his three-year-long journey to investigate the possibility of any exchanges between Goryeo and Rome, especially during the 78 years from the printing of Jikji in 1377 to the printing of the Gutenberg Bible in 1455.
After hard work, he finally made a remarkable discovery at the Vatican’s Secret Archives. He found Pope John XXII’s letter to King Chungsuk of Goryeo in 1333. In the letter, the Pope expressed his appreciation of Goryeo’s hospitality to his delegation. The letter changed history that had recorded Jesuit priest Gregorious de Cespedes, who came to Joseon in 1593, as the first European to set foot in Korea. More importantly, it revealed evidence of cultural exchange between Goryeo and Europe in the 14th century.
Previously, former U.S. vice-president Al Gore also addressed a connection between Goryeo’s movable metal type and Gutenberg’s invention. He said at the 2005 Seoul Digital Forum, “It is known in the West that Gutenberg invented the printing technology for the first time. However, the printing technology using metal movable type was learned from Joseon through a papal delegation visiting the Korean kingdom. I learned this at the Swiss Museum for Paper, Writing and Printing. The Pope’s delegation included a friend of Gutenberg, and he brought back some records related to printing technology from his visit to Joseon.”
Rosa Parks’ defiance inspired Martin Luther King, Jr.
Goryeo’s Jikji inspired Gutenberg.
There is no question about the great changes King or Gutenberg brought to the world. However, if there wasn’t Rosa Parks or Jikji, the history we know would have gone differently. We cannot ignore the predecessors of great changes. So, VANK and its members launched a campaign to promote Jikji, the world’s oldest existing book printed with movable metal type. Our members persuaded Dorling Kindersley (DK) to include information about Jikji on its website. DK is a leading multinational publishing company that publishes books in 62 languages and 87 countries, including the United States, Canada, Germany, the United Kingdom, China, and India, since its foundation in 1974. Its education website, dkfindout.com, described the Gutenberg Bible as the world’s first book printed with movable metal type. It had no mention of Jikji. After being introduced to Jikji by our members, DK included Jikji on the website as the first book printed with movable metal type.
Another VANK member persuaded the American Printing History Association (APHA) to add information about Jikji on its website. Founded in 1974, the APHA is an organization that supports research on typography, printing, and publishing. Its website mentioned that movable metal type was used in Joseon in 1403. However, it omitted information about the printing of Jikji in 1377, while mentioning the printing of the Gutenberg Bible in 1455. One of our members requested that the association include information about Jikji on its website. After reviewing her information, the association added information that Jikji is the world’s oldest extant book printed with movable metal type.
Our members contact publishers, libraries, museums, and educational institutions around the world to promote Jikji and accurate history. Please join us in our efforts to promote a balanced historical perspective!